Early+Islamic+Art

=Early Islamic Art=

//from Mr. Bowers AP Art History Courses at East Chapel Hill High School//

// this article is about the art and culture of // early Islam

toc = = =**Overview**=
 * Muslim art**, like the Christian and Judaic art that preceded it, was largely intended to promote their religion. Most buildings that we see were **mosques,** which was a place where all Muslims could gather to study the **Qu'ran (Koran)**, their holy book. Like Judeo-Christian beliefs, Muslims believed in **Allah**, who was the one true god.

Islam began in 610, when Muhammad began to receive revelations from **Allah**, and he began to codify them into the **Koran** and transmitted God's words to his people, the Bedouins. Prior to their conversion, the Bedouins were primarily middlemen who carted goods across the desert from East Asia to Europe. When they converted to Islam, the Bedouins became ** Muslims **, Arab for "follower of Allah". Muhammad's family soon came to rule the Bedouins (now known as ** Arabs ** ); however, during the ascension of the fourth ** caliph ** (successor to Muhammad), a civil war broke out that resulted in Ali's assassination and the success of his nemesis, Muawiya. Since then, a division in the Muslim world between the ** Shi'ites ** (meaning "party (followers) of Ali") and the ** Sunnis ** (those who recognize all of the caliphs as "rightfully guided") has persisted to this day; in fact, many Muslim nations of the Middle East still have political conflicts between the two factions.

The major holy site of Islam is the **Ka'aba**, which is where Muhammad destroyed all of the idols of the pagan Bedouin religion so that the shrine could be dedicated to Allah. Every year, millions travel to this site in the **hajj** (pilgrimage), which is located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

While it is an important structure, the **Ka'aba** was not truly a Muslim construction, for it was said to have been built by Ibrahim (Abraham) for God. However, we will look at other Muslim constructions in the subsequent sections. = = =**Early Islamic Art: The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates (661-1258 CE)**=

Dome of the Rock
The earliest Islamic artwork is the **Dome of the Rock**, which is shown at right. The Rock is holy to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and it is permanently enshrined by the dome, which was built by the **Umayyads**, the first Muslim dynasty that ruled from 661-750 CE. It is fairly obvious from the interior that the Muslims imitated Roman and Byzantine designs, which occurred with almost all of their architecture. However, whereas Roman buildings were fairly plain, the Muslims lavishly decorated their holy buildings. The purpose of such decoration was to prevent artists from making "false images" of the Prophet Muhammad. The stripes on the arches are another feature of Muslim architecture, which we will see in future ** mosques **. Note also the gilded dome and clerestory, both of which were imported from the Romans. The columns are Roman, but the capitals are gilded, with the shafts made of gray marble. The exterior of the building is decorated with ** turquoise **, which was a brilliant blue hue that is found on multiple Muslim buildings. Overall, the grandeur of the Dome of the Rock would have left a deep impression upon the pilgrim that set foot in there.


 * Great Mosque of Kairouan **

Another great building of this period is the **Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia,** built during the reign of the **Abbasids** (750-1258 CE) and shown below. When the Abbasids overthrew their previous rulers, they began to build more infrastructure in their immense empire. The structure should look familiar, as it uses the **hypostyle plan** of the Byzantines and Romans. An important, defining feature of the **mosque** was the **minaret**, which was used to call the faithful to prayer during the day; in the photo below, it is the tower facing front. The large courtyard of the center could be used for prayer or gathering. Note the arcade that surrounds the courtyard, reminiscent of Roman aqueducts. On the interior, the **qibla** wall would contain a special niche that faced Mecca, the holy city, for prayer (known as the **mihrab**); it is a continuation of the tradition established in these monotheistic religions (such as the apse of a church or Torah niche of a synagogue). While this structure is significant, it pales in comparison to the next building.

** Great Mosque of Cordoba **
Perhaps is the most famous and majestic mosque of this period is the **Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain,** built in the **Emirate of Cordoba**. Following their defeat at the hands of the **Abbasids**, the **Umayyads** fled to their territory in Spain; Muslim rule continued there until the //Reconquista// of 1400s. However, during their rule, the **Umayyads** built this grand mosque at Cordoba that still stands today. Again, we see the striped arches present in the **Dome of the Rock**. The photo on the right shows the dome of the mosque, which is ornately decorated and unlike the circular, geometric domes of the Romans and Byzantines; rather, the structure appears to be more abstract. An important architectural detail to notice is the use of the **horseshoe arch**; an example is shown at bottom right. Another element of the mosque is the **flying arch**, which is an optical illusion achieved by placing two arches on a pier. This mosque became a major commercial center and was expanded upon by later caliphs. It is certainly a sight worth seeing in person.



** //Minbar// of the Kutubiya Mosque **
The **//Minbar// of the Kutubiya Mosque in Morocco** would have served as the stairs to the **imam's** (Koran teacher) "pulpit" in the mosque. The sides are exquisitely carved with a pattern of eight-pointed stars and elongated hexagons inlaid with ivory, and the top and bottom of the stairs contain **horseshoe arches**. This pulpit was among one of the finest, according to Ibn Marzuq, a distinguished preacher who spoke from 48 different **//minbars.//**

= = =**The Splinter Empires (Saljuqs, Maghrebs, and the Mongols / Timurids)**=

By the 11th century CE, the **Abbasid Caliphate** was disintegrating. By 1038, the **Saljuq (Seljuk) Turks** united most of Iran and Iraq and ruled that region until 1194. The **Mongols** conquered Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasids, in 1258, ending the already weakened dynasty. In North Africa and Spain, the **Maghreb** ruled until their expulsion in 1492 by the Spaniards.

These developments made the artwork from this period more regionalized as opposed to unified. Though the structures may have had the same purpose, their architecture varied significantly from place to place.

Mediterranean (Maghreb)
Two major buildings characterize the architecture from this region.

The //Madrasa//-Mausoleum-Mosque in Cairo, Egypt
This combined facility had a **four-iwan plan**, which divided a building into four major parts, each with their own function within the mosque. Once again, we see the elaborate decoration that characterizes Islamic architecture; note also the minaret in the bottom model of the mosque. The interior (top) contains a beautiful **mihrab** that would be meant for prayer to Mecca; the **joggled voussoirs** pattern is one of many decorative patterns used by the Muslims. The **minbar** at the front would have been used by an **imam** for preaching. Multiple glass lamps have been found in the building, suggesting their importance in illuminating the mosque.

The Alhambra
Found in Granada, Spain, the **Alhambra** was a palce built for the Nasrids, the last Spanish Muslim dynasty. The palace is expansive, but a particularly interesting area is the **Court of the Lions**, which is shown below. The fountain in the center would have added water to the palace, used to provide a flowing decoration. The **dome of the Court of the Lions**, pictured at bottom right, is somewhat distinct from other domes we have seen as it is decorated with **muqarnas**, which were small little hive-like cells in the walls. Overall, we see a structure that is similar to previous design but distinct in the style of architecture and decoration.

Middle East (Saljuqs and Mongols / Timurids)
Multiple artworks characterize this region, as we shall see below.

Shah-I Zinda Funerary Complex
This burial chamber was built over the tomb of the saint Qutham b. Abbas, and it was used by the Timurids to bury their princesses in late 14th and 15th centuries. The blue color scheme is distinctly Timurid, and the **Kufic script** (a stylized form of writing Arabic) surrounding the drum of the dome shows a distinct Islamic structure. Later empires would emulate this structure, as we shall see below.

Tile Mosaic **Mihrab**
This **mihrab from the Madrasa Imami of Isfahan, Iran** was made by painstakingly pasting together each piece of tile to make the calligraphic script at the top and the patterns above the **pointed arch**, another distinctive element of Islamic architecture. The floral pattern of the artwork contrasts sharply with the pattern on the arch.

Calligraphy
Below, we see several examples of **calligraphy**, one of the most highly regarded artworks in Islam. As is evident from the artworks below, calligraphy could be present on almost any medium, be it paper, ceramics, or cloth. The **Kufic script** on both the paper and cloth was used to make the writing more legible to a crowd of people who looked at it. The embellishments of these pieces of art (and examination of subsequent works of art) show the omnipresence of calligraphy in Muslim art.

= The Three Gunpowder Empires (Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals) =

By the 1500s, three major Islamic empires dominated the Middle East and India. Common to all three was their use of gunpowder in combat. The **Ottomans** (1342-1918) controlled the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, the Balkans, and western Iran. From there, the **Safavids** (1501-1732) controlled the rest of Iran and were influenced largely by their Mongol predecessors. The **Mughals** controlled India and ruled over non-Muslims; thus, their rule was very different from the other empires.

The Mosque of Sultan Selim
The Ottomans occupied the former land of the Byzantines, which influenced their architecture. Drawing from the **Hagia Sophia** (which we saw in Byzantine art), the **Mosque of Sultan Selim** was constructed to be grander than its Byzantine counterpart. Built by the architect **Sinan**, the massive dome of the structure is supported by corner half-domes that give the impression of immense space on the interior. Unlike **Hagia Sophia**, however, this mosque is truly **central-planned**; that is, the mosque's architecture is an expansion upon the center of a circle (in this case, the dome). The complex also houses multiple other facilities, but this structure is perhaps the most impressive and majestic of them all.

Iluminated // Tugra // of Sultan Suleyman
Consistent with the practices of the older **Saljuqs** and **Mamluks**, the **Ottomans** also used calligraphy for political purposes, which can be seen in the **Illuminated Tugra of Sultan Suleyman**, one of the most significant rulers of the dynasty. The patterns of this particular **tugra** may have been influenced by Chinese customs, which used blue backgrounds and floral patterns. The calligraphy, however, is distinctly Muslim.

The Safavid Dynasty
Safavid architecture was influenced by the **Mongol / Timurid** period that had preceded them, which we will see in the building below.

Masjid-I Shah, Isfahan, Iran
We can see how the **Masjid-I Shah** was influenced by the **Shah-I Zinda** of the **Mongol / Timurid** era. Certainly, the blue dome of this mosque is very similar to the one of the funerary complex. However, the **gate to Masjid-I Shah** uses the **muqarnas** once again, and the **minarets** appear once again to indicate the religious purpose of this building. The mosque's **four-iwan** plan emulates previous designs. Note the **Kufic script** that decorates the dome of the mosque, just as we saw in the **Shah-I Zinda**.

Mughal Dynasty
As rulers of India, the **Mughals** also modeled **Timurid** architecture; however, a book about the life of **Babur**, one of the dynasty's most prolific rulers, provides far more insight into the royal emperor's life.

"Babur Builds the Bagh-I Wafa" from the Baburnama
In this scene, Babur is shown admiring the works of artisans who are building a **chahar bagh** four-part garden. **Babur** is seen in the right panel with his builders, and he appears to be directing their construction or pointing out a structural detail. Note the Arabic script and the presence of water as a decorative element.