Art+of+South+&+Southeast+Asia

=Art of South & Southeast Asia=

//from Mr. Bowers AP Art History Courses at East Chapel Hill High School//

//this article is about the art and culture of South & Southeast Asia

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**Overview**
Since its beginning in the Indus River valley, the civilization which would begin to dominate South and Southeast Asia possessed an advanced, unique artistic language through which the themes of its religion were communicated. Early Hinduism incorporated some of the mystical ideas of this society, while introducing some of the Aryan invader's own, and it is this theme that resounds throughout .The vibrant art and culture of the area. Equally important was the development of Buddhism, which gave a new subject for sculpture in the Buddha himself and provided the impetus for the unique architectural style of the Buddhist shrine. Later Hinduism created an equally distinct geometric design,and sculptures of majestic gods and goddesses. While this transpired on the Indian subcontinent, in Southeast Asia another type of Buddhism, Theravada, distinct from the mainland Mahayana tradition, flourished with its own artistic flavor, focusing on ideas of divine kingship rather than the Buddha himself, regarded as a human teacher rather than god as on the mainland. This style still had roots, however, in the ancient Indus River valley teacher, and the similarities between the three styles: Hindu, mainland Buddhist, and island Buddhist art and architecture. The similarities include the idea of beauty and a dynamic art, able to represent the ever-shifting world, either due to divine force as in the Hindu tradition, or human suffering and desire as a Buddhist would claim.

**Indus Valley Civilization**
The South Asian subcontinent is a peninsular region that includes the present-day countries of India, southeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Some overarching traits of Indian art are that it had a distinctive sense of beauty, it contains prevasive symbolism, and it captures the vibrant quality of a world seen as infused with the dynamics of the divine. The earliest South Asian civilization was located around the lower part of the Indus River, in present-day Pakistan and in northwestern India. It was the discovery of small seals in the late nineteenth century that provided a clue of an ancient civilization existing in this region. The similar design and construction of ancient cities of the Indus Valley suggest a coherent culture. Remarkable city features show that the technical and engineering skills of this civilization were highly advanced.

**Indus Valley**
“Priest-King” from Mohenjo-Daro. This torso of a man may depict a leader. Though there are similarities to Mesopotamian art, there are obvious different physical traits—a low forehead, a broad nose, thick lips, long slit eyes. His garment is patterned with trefoil designs that had once been painted red. A narrow band with a circular ornament on his arm may indicate rank. The figure also has a formal pose and simplified geometric form.

Nude Torso from Harappa This statue, less than four inches tall, displays the naturalistic style of Indus artworks. It emphasizes the soft texture of the human body and the nuances of muscular form. This style later influenced Indian art. The demise of the Indus River Valley society has unknown causes, but the civilization disappeared between 2000-1750. This exemplifies a style that plainly contrasts with that of the previous statue, seeing as this is more naturalistic. Unlike the athletic forms of Greece, however, this statue places more focus on the softness and subtleties of the body’s form, and the abdomen is relaxed similarly to that of a yogi able to control his breath. Between 2000 and 1750 BCE, the civilization declined for unknown reasons, although they were probably related to the natural disasters climate change at the time caused, as well as invasions.

**The Vedic Period**
In 2000 BCE, the Aryans came into India from Central Asia. Over time, they introduced certain customs, like the horse and chariot as well as the use of Sanskrit. The Vedas were the the sacred writing of the time and gave the period its name. This period marked the start of the three major religions of India: Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Later on, the Upanishads were created, which were writings that centered around atman, or the individual soul. By 400 BCE, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were composed, two of the most influential Sanskrit writings in history. These writings were extremely influential in Indian culture and told stories of both gods and humans. Religion took hold soon after. The teachings of Mahavira and Shakyumuni Buddha preached a distancing of oneself from the material world as well as a rejection of the Vedas. Buddhism in turn became a major influence on art of the Vedic Period, mixing their culture with their beliefs.

**The Maurya Period & the Rise of Buddhism**
The Maurya Dynasty (c. 322-185 BCE) extended its rule over all but the southernmost portion of the subcontinent of India. Mauryan art reflects a period of heroes and the ideal of upholding dharma, or the divinely ordained moral law. The third Maurya emperor, Ashoka (ruled c. 273 - 232 BCE), spread Buddhism all over India. He bulit monolithic pillars at the sites of Buddhist monasteries as well as other monuments. The creators of these pillars probably adapted flag-bearing standards to include symbolism from both Hinduism and Buddhism. The Ashokan pillar, made of a sandstone shaft, was 50 feet tall and rested on a stone foundation. Inscriptions pertaining to dharma, that could also be interpreted as Buddhist teaching, were found carved on the shaft. At the top there would be an elaborately carved animal sculpture, and both the pillar and the animal sculpture were given the Mauryan polish. The pillars are believed to to symbolize the axis mundi, joining the earth with the cosmos and celestial realms.

These themes are exemplified in the statue of Yakshi Holding a Fly-whisk. Yakshis and yakshas are (respectively) female and male spirits associated with the forces of nature. The ideal of upholding dharma arose during this time period, and the divinely ordained moral law believed to keep the universe from falling into chaos. This statue of a female figure represents yakshi, a spirit associated with the productive forces of nature. Her voluminous breasts and pelvis embodies female beauty and procreative beliefs. Her figure conveys authority due to the rigor of her pose, her massive form, and the linear patterning of her dress. To contrast this, we see a soft, youthful face, and preciseness of features such as stomach muscles. The lustrous polish used is a detail of Mauryan sculpture.

The Maurya Period is also associated with the rise of Buddhism, which became the official state religion under the Emperor Ashoka. He erected monolithic pillars at sites related to Buddha’s life. Pillars had been used as flag-bearing standards in India since earliest times and the Ashoka pillar builders adapted this traditional style to fit the new religion of Buddhism. The fully developed Ashokan pillar was a tapered sandstone shaft that rested on a stone foundation slab sunk 10 feet into the ground and rose 50 feet about ground. Many had the rules of dharma carved on the surface. At the top would be a separate piece of sandstone that was an elaborate capital featuring animal sculpture. The shaft and capital were given the characteristic Maurya polish. The pillars could have represented axis mundi, or axis of the world that join the earth with the cosmos.

The Lion Capital originally crowned the pillar at Sarnath at the site of Buddha’s first sermon. The lower portion represents lotus blossom petals that symbolize the presence of divine purity in an imperfect world. The abacus, or slab forming at the top of the capital, is embellished with low-relief carvings of chakras, alternating with a lion, horse, bull and elephant. These four animals symbolize the four great rivers of the world. On the abacus stand four back-to-back lions facing the four cardinal directions. They represent the universality of Buddhism.

**Shungas and early Andhras**
After the fall of the Maurya Empire, some of the most important regional dynasties included the Shunga dynasty (185 - 72 BCE) and the Andhra dynasty (72 BCE - third century CE). The Shungas ruled in central India, while the Andhras ruled, initially, in central, and later, south, India. Many significant Buddhist structures were created during this time period.

Stupas are solid mounds enclosing a reliquary and are fundamental to Buddhism. All follow the plan of a mandala, the diagram of the cosmos as imagined by Buddhists. The very first stupas were built to house the remains of the Buddha. There were eight stupas, and people venerated by walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction. Later on, King Ashoka opened the original eight stupas and divided the relics among many other stupas as well.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the most famous Buddhist structures. It was part of a large monastery complex and built by King Ashoka during the Mauryan Period. The dome was composed of dirt and rubble, faced with dress stone, and sits on a raised base. It has a 10 foot tall stone railing around it which is carved, reflecting the shape of wooden railings. Four toranas (stone gateways) are placed around the structure which symbolize the four cardinal directions. The jataka tales are carved into these toranas, which depict stories of Buddha's past lives. Yakshis are placed between the capitals and the crossbars. These are Indian female figures in a somewhat free-moving pose and one leg crossed behind the other. During the second century, Buddhist monks used caves for their own use, due to the fact that caves at this time were considered holy. They carved these places into sacred spaces and real of sculpted art. These rock cut halls were either viharas, which were used as the monk's living spaces, or chaityas, which included stupas. The Chaitya hall at Karla is one of the most developed rock cut halls. It contains a balcony supported by columns and pillars of wood in the Ashokan style. the walls have reliefs on them, balcony railings, and arched windows. The sun/chaitya window supplies a large portion of the monuments' light. The main facade has three entrances with sculpted mithuna couples and the interior hall is shaped in the form of a barrel vault.

Buddhist Rock-Cut Halls Caves, in India, were often the abode of holy men. Around the second century BCE, cave sanctuaries were created out of the stone of the Deccan Plateau. These were made for the use of Buddhist monks and are very detailed, like sculpture. The atmosphere created by the caves promote a state of heightened awareness.

Chaitya Hall At Karle Two types of of rock-cut halls were made: the vihara, which were the monks' living quarters, and the chaitya, which housed a stupa. At the entrance of the Chaitya Hall at Karle, columns once supported a balcony which was behind a pair of Ashokan-type pillars. The walla of the vestibule give the appearance of a multi-storied building due to its arched windows, rows of small balcony railings and relief carvings. At the base are two giant statues of elephants. There is a horseshoe-shaped opening in the main facade which provides the hall with light. The window originally had a carved wood screen.

There are three entrances at the main facade which are flanked by panels of mithuna couples (amorous male and female figures that evoke the harmony and fertility of life). The ceiling is carved in the form of a barrel vault with arching wooden ribs. The whole chaitya was once painted brightly. Pillars allowed for a walkway around the stupa, which was in the apse. Closely-spaced columns separate the side and main aisles. The columns are set on a large pot from which rises an octagonal shaft. On top of the shaft are bell-shaped lotus capitals with inverted pyramids of planks which support sculptures. The sculptures depict elephants with mithuna couples on them. The pillars around the apse and the stupa are plain, and a railing motif decorates the base. The dome once had three "umbrella" disks, but only one remains. Because the stupa is carved from rock, it does not contain any relics.

**The Kushan and Later Andhra Periods**
A new type of Buddhism, Mahayana, or the Great Vehicle, emerged during this time period. This movement swept most of northern India and eastern Asia and inspire the first depictions of Buddha in art. The great big schools of representation included the Ganhara region, Mathura and Amaravati. While all three schools developed distinct styles, they shared basic aspects of Buddha’s appearance such as the monk’s robe. The Buddha is said to have 32 distinguishing marks, called lakshama. One is the urna, a tuft of white hair between his eyebrows. Another is an ushnisha which is a bun, or topknot on Buddha’s head.

Ganharan art combines Hellenistic, Persian and native styles. Buddha is portrayed as a super-human figure. Standing Buddha is carved from schist, a fine-grained dark stone and portrays Buddha as having broad with a well-defined torso. His robe has tight, rib-like folds and drape in a dramatic U shape. This pattern resembles togas from Roman statues which influence Ganhara art through trade in the first millennium C.E. The Gandhara style had elements of Hellenistic, Persian, and Indian styles combined. An image of the Buddha usually showed the Buddha as more powerful than a normal human due to his massive form. His posture is slightly relaxed. The robe's riblike folds provide a contrast for the delicate creases. This tension of the folds suggests life and power, a western idea. The treatment of the robe also resembles that of the treatment of Roman togas. Very possibly due to Gandhara's position near west-east trade routes, western influences are clearly found within the Gandhara style.
 * The Gandhara School**

The Mathura style evolved from the representations of yashkas. Buddha and his Attendants is one of the earliest steles in Mathura art. It is carved in high-relief and should Buddha sitting with his right hand raised to symbolize “have no fear.” The hand gestures of Buddha are very important to communicate certain ideas. Behind Buddha’s head is a halo and branches of a papal tree (the tree he was underneath at the time of enlightenment). The robe style is quite different from the Ganharan robe because here the robe is pulled tightly over the body as if Buddha is nude. The folds of the robe are shown by incised lines at the center of each ridge versus having the folds extrude from the carving. The Mathura tendency to abstraction is also present in the face, where the features are geometric shapes. Despite this, the figure is overall naturalistic.
 * The Mathura School **

Gupta & Post Gupta
A family called the Guptas attained political control over much of North India in 320 CE, creating an empire that lasted only until 486 CE. During this time, however, the rise in art and literature contributed to more sculpture and painting of a more distinctive sort. Furthermore, Buddhism was at the climax of its influence in India, but Hinduism was gaining popularity as well.
 * Gupta Period**

There were two schools of Gupta Buddhist sculpture; the Mathura school, from the earlier Kushan period, and the school of Sarnath. The Standing Buddha is an excellent example of Sarnath style. It was carved from fine-grained sandstone, and the Buddha is in a somewhat relaxed pose, its body apparent through the plain, clinging robe. The robe lacks the creases and folds common in fabrics depicted in the Kushan period, which is a key characteristic of the Sarnath school. This places the focus instead upon the perfection of the lithe frame, wide shoulders, and proportional torso of the body. Only a few lines of the garment interrupt the smooth surface, and the face reflects the overall smoothness of the figure. Its eyes, gazing downward, suggest spiritual insight, while the general open position of the Buddha gives a human connection. The remains of a halo are behind the head, and it was carved with concentric circles of pearls and foliage, thus providing contrast to the simple surface of the figure. This style, therefore, shows Buddha as balanced between spiritual and physical purity.
 * Sculpture**

The Gupta dynasty ended around 500 CE, yet the influences of that time lasted until the 10th century. Buddhism started to fade out of the picture, however, and was replaced by growing Hinduism, which is reflected in this time period.
 * The Post-Gupta Period**

T emple of Vishnu at Deogarh. This 530 CE temple is one of the earliest northern temples, and although its original shikhara has crumbled away, it is apparent that it was a large building of big cut stones. In its day, it would have resembled a mountain, which is metaphorically tied to the meaning of a Hindu temple.

A panel shows Vishnu lying on the Cosmic Waters at the start of creation, representing the second phase of Vishnu’s emanation. He sleeps on Ananta, the serpent of infinity, whose body winds into space eternally.

The goddess Lakshmi personifies Vishnu’s Shakti, or female energy, and rouses him, holding his foot. Vishnu dreams the universe into being, starting space-time, and the first being created is Brahma. He is the central figure in the row of gods above Vishnu and has four heads, and he turns himself into the universe of space and time. Vishnu is depicted as a great, glorious figure with four arms, highlighting his omnipotence, and he wears few clothes but has quite some jewelry. Elements of the Gupta style are found in the smoothness of the body and the highly detailed jewelry, including Vishnu’s crown. In the frieze below, the four figures to the right show Vishnu’s powers and they stand ready to fight evil, represented at the left by two demons who want to kill Brahma. This essentially summarizes the birth of the universe and advent of evil in three organized registers.

10th-14th Centuries & Art of Southeast Asia
Many new regional styles came about during this period. Kings would rival one another about the construction of temples dedicated to their favored deity. Hindu temples became a template for the formation of many temples around different areas. The Kandariya Mahadeva in central India was dedicated to Shiva. It is made in the northern style with a shikhara raised over its garbhagriha. It is decorated profusely, with porches on its sides and back. It sits on a stone terrace and has a flight of stairs leading to its three halls or mandapas. It is composed of stone blocks using post and lintel construction. Its interior is not very large. The exterior is built much like a mountain and is intricately decorated. It has an air of rapid ascent and moves towards the sky, and also contains three rows of sculpture showing Shiva's bliss and divine status. The towers are connected to the lower portion by moldings and porches as well as space over the mandapas. The Rajarajeshvara Temple to Shiva is an amazing feat in Hindu architecture. It lies as a walled compound near the Kaveri river. It was most likely the tallest Indian structure for its time, using expanded dimensions, madapas, and pyramidal roofs in the northern style. The exterior contains many niches each holding statues of Shiva which are evenly spaced to show formality. The vimana has four sides and is a hollow pyramid that rises thirteen stories. Two religious movements came about it this time: the tantric, which appeared more in the north and Bhakti, which appeared more in the south. Bhakti art was based on ancient texts like Bhagavad Gita and centers around the relationship between humans and deities. They focus on a personal relationship with god and a complete surrender to the higher power therein. The wall painting at Rajarajeshvara Temple shows bhakti art at its best. It depicts Rajaraja as a simple religious teacher. In contrast to his dark skin and white beard, there is a bronze king beside him, treating Rajaraja as a saint and superior. It clearly displays the difference between the holy deities and the mortal hierarchy.


 * The Monumental Northern Temple **

The Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho is dedicated to Shiva. It was bulit by the Chandella dynasty and was built in the northern style in which the curvilinear shikhara is over the garbhagriha and is large and extensively decorated. The temple itself rests on a stone terrace separating the temple from the world. Steep stairs lead to the mandapas, a series of three halls which are used for rituals. It is built using post and lintel construction and does not have very large interior spaces.

**Art of Southeast Asia**
Trade and cultural exchange over the sea and Buddhism and Hinduism was spread throughout Southeast Asia. Different types of Buddhism all played important roles in their art.

**Java – Borobudur**
The Borobudur is the most monumental Buddhist structure in Southeast Asia, found in the island of Java. It is a large stupa surrounded by seventy-two smaller, open stupas. It expresses a large range of Mahayana symbolism and reliefs in the lower galleries show scenes from Buddha’s life.

** Cambodia – Angkor Vat **
In Cambodia, Khmer kings ruled at Angkor more than four hundred years. Among the state created temples, Buddhist and Hindu, King Suryavarman II began building Angkor Vat, the site of royal capitals of Khmer. Dedicated to the worship of Vishnu, the complex incorporates a stepped pyramid with five towers set within four enclosures of increasing perimeter. Suryavarman’s construction pairs him with Vishnu to affirm his royal and religious status. Low-relief sculptures illustrate scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata and Suryavarman’s armies.

** Sri Lanka **
Sri Lanka is an island linked to India’s southeastern coast and played a large role in strengthening Theravada traditions by preserving relics and scripts. Sri Lanka sculptors further refined Indian styles and iconography in colossal Buddhist sculptures. The rock-cut Parinirvana of the Buddha at Gal Vihara, one of three colossal Buddhas at the site, restates Buddha’s final transcendence and localizes classic Buddhist tradition.

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